Appendix
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Critical commodities summaries:
Characteristics, supply, demand, and criticality
Information for metals, non-metals and minerals in the following tables was compiled by Geoscience Australia from the sources listed below.
- Geological and mineral systems information:
- Rudnick and Gao (2003) and Section 2 of this report and references therein.
- Data on production and resources:
- United States Geological Survey (2012) and Geoscience Australia (2013) for 2011 resources and production data.
- Demand data:
- UNComtrade database, for data as of December 2012.
- Information on properties, usages, recycling and substition:
- European Commission (2010), United States Geological Survey (2012), United States Department of Energy (2010), and Willis and Chapman (2012).
| Antimony (Sb) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Silvery white, shiny, very brittle metal that is a semi-conductor and resistant to acids. | |
| Usages | Antimony is used in flame retardants, as an alloying material for Pb and Sn, and in micro capacitors. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.2 ppm; major Sb-bearing minerals include stibnite and tetrahedrite. | |
| Mineral system groups | Porphyry-epithermal, subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | Main product or co-product (with Au). | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 169 kt | |
| Major producing countries | China (150 kt) 89% Bolivia (5 kt) 3% | |
| Global resources | 1800 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China ( 950 kt) 53% Russia (350 kt) 19% Bolivia (310 kt) 17% | |
| Australian production | 1.6 kt (1%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 106 kt (6%) | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Developments in processing technologies allowing recovery from Zn-Pb-Ag ores, and discovery of new Sb-Au deposits in the orogenic mineral system. | |
| Recycling | Small amounts recycled from Pb-acid batteries. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | China | 205 748 533 |
| India | 20 038 298 | |
| Italy | 10 754 572 | |
| Thailand | 8 626 003 | |
| Kyrgyzstan | 5 210 119 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Flame retardant substitutes are organic compounds and hydrated aluminium oxide. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (14) | |
| Arsenic (As) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Grey, brittle metal that has low hardness and is a semiconductor. | |
| Usages | High-purity As (99.9999%) is used in gallium-arsenide semiconductors for solar cells, space research, and telecommunication. Arsenic is also used in germanium-arsenide-selenide specialty optical materials and indium-gallium-arsenide short-wave infrared technology. Arsenic trioxide is used in the production of chromated copper arsenate (CCA) wood preservatives. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 2.5 ppm; major As-bearing minerals include arsenopyite, realgar, orpiment, arsenical pyrite and tennantite. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic and basin-hosted | |
| Extraction | By-product of non-ferrous metal and Au smelting. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 52 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (25 kt) 48% Chile (11.5 kt) 22% Morocco (8 kt) 15% | |
| Global resources | Quantitative global estimates are not available. Arsenopyrite is the primary ore mineral. Arsenic is also reclaimed as a by-product of nonferrous metal and Au smelting. | |
| Major resource holders | Global resources are thought to be 20 times annual global production. | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Recovery of As from ores, concentrates and tails from existing mining operations. | |
| Recycling | Arsenic metal is recycled from gallium-arsenide semiconductor manufacturing, and arsenic trioxide is also recycled in wood treatment plants. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Japan | 5 518 044 | |
| China | 2 700 348 | |
| US | 2 256 152 | |
| France | 1 342 726 | |
| India | 1 282 216 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Arsenic substitutions for CCA wood treatments include alkaline copper quaternary, ammoniacal copper quaternary, ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate, copper azole, and copper citrate. In addition, CCA treated wood alternatives include concrete, steel, and plastic composite material. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Low (3) | |
| Barium (Ba) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Soft, silvery-white metal that oxidises rapidly and has good electrical conductivity. | |
| Usages | Barium is used in metal alloys including solders and to remove gases from vacuum tubes. Barium compounds are used in medicine, fluorescent lighting electrodes, glass, ceramics and fireworks. Barite is used in drilling muds. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 456 ppm; the most important Ba-bearing minerals is barite. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, subaqueous volcanic-related and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | Main product | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 7800 kt (reported as barite [BaSO4] ). | |
| Major producing countries |
China (4000 kt) 51% India (1100 kt) 14% Morocco (650 kt) 8% | |
| Global resources | 240 000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China (100 000 kt) 42% India (32 000 kt) 13% Algeria (29 000 kt) 12% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Recovery of barite from barite lenses associated with Zn-Pb-Ag deposit from the volcanic-related and basin-hosted mineral systems. | |
| Recycling | None | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Reported as barite [BaSO4] and witherite [BaCO2]) | US | 147 781 979 |
| Germany | 58 888 240 | |
| Colombia | 25 180 978 | |
| Canada | 24 064 231 | |
| Netherlands | 23 307 218 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Few suitable substitutes exist. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Low (3) | |
| Beryllium (Be) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Steel gray, low density metal that is hard and brittle at room temperature, is highly toxic, and has a high melting point (1287°C). | |
| Usages | Beryllium is used in telecom equipment, automotive electronics, aerospace and defence, and industrial components. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 1.9 ppm; major Be-bearing minerals include bertrandite, beryl, chrysoberyl and phenakite. | |
| Mineral system group | Granite-related. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 240 t | |
| Major producing countries |
US (210 t) 88% China (22 t) 9% Mozambique (2 t) 1% | |
| Global resources | World Be resources are not sufficiently well delineated to report consistent figures for all countries. | |
| Major resource holders | Not available | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Discovery of new pegmatitic resources in the igneous-related mineral system. | |
| Recycling | Beryllium is recycled mostly from new scrap generated during the manufacture of Be products. About 19% of Be consumption is recycled from scrap. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| US | 4 529 343 | |
| Singapore | 3 613 880 | |
| France | 3 012 436 | |
| Germany | 1 882 597 | |
| United Kingdom | 1 678 668 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | A few substitutes can substitute for Be, but are less effective. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (7) | |
| Bismuth (Bi) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Silvery-white, brittle metal that has low thermal conductivity and is diamagnetic. | |
| Usages | Bismuth is often used in free-machining steels, brass, pigments and solders (as a non-toxic replacement for lead), in pharmaceuticals, as an additive to enhance metallurgical quality in foundry, and as a triggering mechanism in fire sprinklers. Substitution of Pb by Bi in solders may result in increased demand. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.18 ppm; major Bi-bearing minerals include bismuthinite, athough Bi can be an important trace to minor constituent of galena. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | By-product of Pb smelting. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 8.5 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (6 kt) 71% Peru (1.1 kt) 13% Mexico (1 kt) 12% | |
| Global resources | 320 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China (240 kt) 75% Peru (11 kt) 3% Mexico (10 kt) 3% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Recovery of Bi from ores and concentrates from existing mining operations; minor potential for skarn and related deposit types in the porphryry-epithermal and granite-related mineral systems. | |
| Recycling | Bismuth is recycled from both new and old scrap, accounting for 10% of U.S. consumption (80 tons). | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| US | 41 343 577 | |
| Germany | 32 812 564 | |
| China, Hong Kong SAR | 15 237 058 | |
| China | 12 402 843 | |
| Republic of Korea | 10 836 391 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Titanium dioxide coated mica flakes are substitutes in pigments; In can replace Bi in low-temperature solders; resins can replace Bi in machining; and glycerine-filled glass bulbs can replace Bi alloys in fire sprinkler triggering devices. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (6) | |
| Cadmium (Cd) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Bluish-white, soft, malleable metal that is dutile and resistant to corrosion. | |
| Usages | The dominant use for Cd is in Ni-Cd batteries; it is also used in pigments, coatings and plating, stabilisers for PVC, nonferrous alloys and specialised uses including photovoltaic devices. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.08 ppm; major Cd-bearing minerals include greenockite and sphalerite (as a trace element). | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | By-product of Zn smelting. Typical Zn:Cd ratios in Zn ores range from 200:1 to 400:1. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 21.5 kt (refinery production) | |
| Major producing countries |
China (7.5 kt) Korea, Republic of (2.5 kt) Japan (2 kt) | |
| Global resources | 640 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
India (130 kt) China (92 kt) Australia (61 kt) | |
| Australian production | 0.38 kt | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 61 kt | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Recovery of Cd from ores and concentrates from existing mining operations. | |
| Recycling | Most Cd is recycled from spent consumer and industrial Ni-Cd batteries. Cadmium also recovered from Cu-Cd alloy and some complex nonferrous alloy scrap. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| China | 26 842 371 | |
| Belgium | 16 874 896 | |
| Malaysia | 4 917 003 | |
| Sweden | 3 752 573 | |
| US | 2 220 400 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Li-ion and Ni-metal hydride batteries can replace Ni-Cd batteries, however their higher cost restricts use in low-cost products. Zinc or vapour-deposited Al can substitute in plating applications where Cd is non-essential. Cerium sulphide can substitute in paints and Ba/Zn or Ca/Zn stabilisers can replace Ba/Cd stabilisers in PVC applications. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Low (2) | |
| Chromium (Cr) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Hard metal with a high melting point (1907°C) that is resistant to tarnish. Chromium is antiferromagnetic at room temperature and paramagnetic above 38°C. It is passivated by oxygen making it stable to acids. | |
| Usages | Chromium is used in stainless and heat resistant steels, super alloys, non-ferrous alloys, and pigments. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 135 ppm; major Cr-bearing minerals include chromite. | |
| Mineral system group | Mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 24 000 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
South Africa (11 000 kt) 46% Kazakhstan (3900 kt) 16% India (3800 kt) 16% | |
| Global resources | >480 000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Kazakhstan (220 000 kt) 46% South Africa (200 000 kt) 42% India (54 000 kt) 11% | |
| Australian production | 66.1 kt (0.3%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Development of known deposits and discovery of new deposits in large igneous provinces. | |
| Recycling | Recycled from scrap Cr-bearing steel and alloys. Recycled Cr accounts for about 30% of consumption. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | China | 2 663 968 517 |
| Germany | 72 478 097 | |
| US | 68 873 106 | |
| Russia | 60 035 206 | |
| Netherlands | 54 774 762 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel. Chromium-containing scrap can substitute for ferrochromium in some metallurgical uses. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (12) | |
| Cobalt (Co) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Ferromagnetic metal that is hard and lustrous. | |
| Usages | Emerging technologies the could use Co include Li-ion batteries and synthetic fuels. The most important present use for Co is superalloys, steel, and magnets. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 26.6 ppm; major Co-bearing minerals include cobaltite and cobaltian pyrite. | |
| Mineral system group | Mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | By-product, co-product of Cu mining (e.g., Congo and Zambia). | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 98 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
Congo (52 kt) 53% Canada (7.2 kt) 7% China (6.5 kt) 7% Russia (6.3 kt) 6% | |
| Global resources | 7 334 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Congo (3400 kt) 46% Australia (1204 kt )16%1 Cuba (500 kt) 7% | |
| Australian production | 3.85 kt (4%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 1204 kt (16%) | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Development of known deposits and discovery of new deposits in large igneous provinces. Extraction of Co from basin-hosted Cu deposits. | |
| Recycling | Cobalt can be recycled from scrap Co-bearing steel and superalloys. Recycling amounted to 25% of Co comsumption. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | China | 850 265 891 |
| Zambia | 119 262 698 | |
| Finland | 55 161 351 | |
| India | 28 211 094 | |
| Republic of Korea | 19 217 981 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Nickel-based superalloys can substitute Co superalloys; various metals can substitute in steel; and various substitutions are possible in batteries. In some applications, substitution results in a loss of performance. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (21) | |
1 Includes pre-JORC and JORC-compliant (422 kt) resources.
| Copper (Cu) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Highly ductile and malleable metal that has very high thermal and electrical conductivity. | |
| Usages | Copper is used in electronics and power cabling, household and commercial plumbing, refrigeration, cooling and radiator tubing, and telecommunications. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 27 ppm; major Cu-bearing minerals include chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic, iron-oxide copper-gold, subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic, basin-hosted, alkaline intrusion-related and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 16 100 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
Chile (5420 kt) 34% Peru (1220 kt) 8% China (1190 kt) 7% US (1120 kt) 7% | |
| Global resources | 690 000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Chile (190 000 kt) 28% Peru (90 000 kt) 13% Australia (86 600 kt) 13% | |
| Australian production | 960 kt (6%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 86 600 kt (13%) | |
| Australian exports | Ore and Concentrates 1818 kt (China 579 kt, India 586 kt, Japan 386 kt, Republic of Korea 191 kt.) Refined 395 kt (China 146 kt, Chinese Taipei 54 kt, Malaysia 89 kt, Thailand 44 kt. ) | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Further discoveries in most mineral provinces from many different mineral systems. | |
| Recycling | Copper is recycled from both new and old scrap. Recycling of scrap yielded approximatly 820 000 tons of Cu. Recycling of Cu in U.S. totalled 33% of supply. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| China | 15 338 994 191 | |
| Japan | 11 513 173 899 | |
| Republic of Korea | 5 634 034 192 | |
| India | 5 283 700 367 | |
| Spain | 3 667 855 826 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Aluminium substitutes for Cu in power cables, electrical equipment, automobile radiators, cooling and refrigeration tube; Ti and steel are used in heat exchangers; optical fibre substitutes for Cu in telecommunications; and plastics substitute for Cu in water pipe, drain pipe, and plumbing fixtures. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Low (2) | |
| Fluorine (F) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Pale-yellow, highly reactive and toxic gas. | |
| Usages | The F used indistrially is mostly in the form of the mineral fluorite (or fluorspar). Flourite is used for the production of hydrofluoric (HF) acid for the production of virtually all F-bearing chemicals; fluorite is used in processing of U and as a flux in steel making, iron and steel casting, Al production, glass, enamels, and cement production. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 553 ppm; major F-bearing minerals include fluorite (also known as fluorspar). | |
| Mineral system group | Granite-related and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | ||
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 6200 kt (reported as fluorite [ CaF2] ) | |
| Major producing countries | China (3300 kt) 53% Mexico (1080 kt) 17% Mongolia (430 kt) 7% | |
| Global resources | 240 000 kt fluorite | |
| Major resource holders | South Africa (41 000 kt) 17% Mexico (32 000 kt) 13% China (24 000 kt) 10% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential new resources | Extraction of fluorite from known occurrences, possibly including some operating mines. | |
| Recycling | Some synthetic fluorite is recovered from U enrichment. HF and fluorides are routinely recycled by Al smelting operations. A few thousand tonnes are recycled in the US. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Reported with bromine) | China | 78 226 486 |
| Belgium | 48 533 300 | |
| India | 20 799 646 | |
| United Kingdom | 14 795 018 | |
| France | 13 311 769 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Borax, CaCl2, Fe oxides, Mn ore, silica sand and TiO2 have been used as substitutes for fluorite fluxes. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (6) | |
| Gallium (Ga) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Silvery white metal that has a low melting point (29.7°C), a high boiling point (2204°C), and is a semiconductor. | |
| Usages | Gallium is used in integrated circuits (ICs), laser diodes, LEDs, photodetectors, and thin layer photovoltaics. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 16 ppm; in nature Ga occurs as a trace element in bauxite and sphalerite. | |
| Mineral system group | Subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic, basin-hosted and surficial. | |
| Extraction | By-product of Zn smelting. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 216 t (primary production) 270 t (refinery production) 198 t (recycling production) | |
| Major producing countries | China, Germany, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine. | |
| Global resources | Quantitative estimates are not available. Gallium is a by-product of treating bauxite, and from Zn-processing residues. | |
| Major resource holders | Not available | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Extraction from ores and concentrates from existing mining operations, particularly Zn and bauxite mines. | |
| Recycling | Recycled from scrap generated in the manufacture of Ga-As-based devices. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Total of Ga, Hf, In, Nb and Re metal, including waste and scrap, powder and unwrought) | Japan | 420 186 347 |
| US | 311 426 717 | |
| United Kingdom | 193 412 096 | |
| Republic of Korea | 105 816 585 | |
| Germany | 98 629 086 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Organic compounds substitution for LEDs in visual displays, indium phosphide components can substitute Ga-As-based infrared laser diodes in some cases and silicon substitutes in solar cell technology. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (29) | |
| Germanium (Ge) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Grey-white metalloid that is hard, lustrous and semiconducting. | |
| Usages | Germanium is used in fibre and infrared optics, as polymerisation catalysts, and in electronic and solar electric applications. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 1.3 ppm; in nature Ge occurs as a trace element in sphalerite and coal. | |
| Mineral system group | Subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | By-product of Zn smelting. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 118 t (refinery production) | |
| Major producing countries |
China (80 t) 68% Russia (5 t) 4% US (3 t) 3% | |
| Global resources | Quantitative global estimates are not available. By-product of Zn, and Zn-Pb sulfides. | |
| Major resource holders | US (450 t) | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Extraction from ores and concentrates from existing mining operations, particularly Zn and possibly coal mines. | |
| Recycling | Germanium metal used in the optics industry is routinely recycled from new scrap. Worldwide approximatly 30% consumed Ge is produced from recycled materials. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (2010 data for articles thereof waste or scrap/powders) | Ukraine | 101 889 |
| Morocco | 968 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Silicon substitutes for Ge in some electronic applications. Zinc selenide can be substituted in infrared applications but at performance loss. Tantalum, Sb and Ti can be substituted as a polymerisation catalyst. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (8) | |
| Graphite (C) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Iron-black mineral with a metallic-earthy luster that is an electrical and thermal conductor, has high thermal resistance, is inert and can be used as a lubricant. | |
| Usages | Uses of graphite include carbon-graphite composites, electronics, foils, friction materials and special lubricant applications. Flexible graphite products and large-scale fuel cell application developments may become high users of graphite. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 1800 ppm (total C); in nature graphite is one of a number of forms of C. | |
| Mineral system group | (Metamorphosed) basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 925 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (600 kt) 65% India (140 kt) 15% Brazil (76 kt) 8% | |
| Global resources | 77 000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China (55 000 kt) 71% India (11 000 kt) 14% Mexico (3100 kt) 4% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Development of existing resources and new discoveries in metamorphosed reduced-C-rich basins. | |
| Recycling | Refractory graphite material is recycled into products including brake linings and thermal insulation. Recovery of high-quality flake graphite is technically feasible but not currently practiced. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Natural mineral | Japan | 133 830 815 |
| US | 86 833 498 | |
| Germany | 65 432 230 | |
| China | 33 523 090 | |
| Austria | 31 904 446 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Graphite has few suitable substitutes. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (8) | |
| Helium (He) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Colourless, odorless, tastless, non toxic and inert gas that has the lowest boiling and melting points. | |
| Usages | Helium is used in cryogenics, cooling systems in MRI scanners, LCD and fibre optics | |
| Geological occurrence | Helium, a product of radioactive decay, accumulates with natural gas in hydrocarbon traps. | |
| Mineral system group | Basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | By-product of natural gas production | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 180 *hm3 | |
| Major producing countries |
US (57 hm3) 32% US extracted from natural gas (83 hm3) 46% Algeria (20 hm3) 11% | |
| Global resources | World helium resources are not sufficiently well delineated to report consistent figures for all countries. | |
| Major resource holders |
US (4000 hm3) Algeria (1800 hm3) Russia (1700 hm3) | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Extraction of He from existing and new natural gas developments. | |
| Recycling | Helium is seldom recycled. Japan and Western Europe recycle when economically viable. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (No specific trade data on helium, data are for rare gases other than argon) | Japan | 86 206 708 |
| France | 85 876 005 | |
| Germany | 80 049 816 | |
| United Kingdom | 78 146 893 | |
| Republic of Korea | 73 681 134 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | There is no substitute for He in cryogenic applications if temperatures are below –256°C. Argon can substitute in welding and H in lighter than air applications. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Not assessed | |
* hm3 – million cubic metres
| Indium (In) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Silvery white, dense metal that forms alloys with most other metals and generally increases strength, corrosion resistance and hardness. | |
| Usages | Indium tin oxide (ITO) thin-film coatings are used for electrically conductive purposes in flat-panel, TV and smart phone devices. Other uses include electrical components and semiconductors, solders, alloys and compounds. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.052 ppm; In occurs mostly as a trace element in sphalerite. | |
| Mineral system group | Subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | By-product of Zn-Pb, Cu and Sn mining and smelting. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 0.64 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (0.34 kt) 53% Korea, Republic of (0.10 kt) 16% Japan (0.07 kt) 11% Canada (0.065 kt) 10% | |
| Global resources | Not available | |
| Major resource holders | Not available | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Extraction from ores and concentrates from existing mining operations, particularly Zn mines. | |
| Recycling | Indium is recycled from scrap W-bearing steel and superalloys. Recycling is very inefficient, and constitutes a very small (<1%) fraction of supply. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Total of Ga, Hf, In, Nb and Re metal, including waste and scrap, powder and unwrought) | Japan | 420 186 347 |
| US | 311 426 717 | |
| United Kingdom | 193 412 096 | |
| Republic of Korea | 105 816 585 | |
| Germany | 98 629 086 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Antimony can substitute for In in ITO. Carbon nanotube coatings and organic compounds substitutes for ITO in solar cells, flexible displays and touch screens; Hf can replace In in nuclear reactor control rod alloys. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (26) | |
| Lithium (Li) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Shiny, silvery, tough and soft metal that forms strong alloy, is very reactive and has the lowest denisty of all know solids at room temperature. | |
| Usages | Lithium is used in batteries, ceramics and glass. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 16 ppm; Li occurs mostly in spodumene and lepidolite, but also in salt lake and oil field brines. | |
| Mineral system group | Intrusion-related and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 34 kt (excludes US production figures). | |
| Major producing countries |
Chile (12.6 kt) 37% Australia (11.7 kt) 34% China (5.2 kt) 15% | |
| Global resources | 13 000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Chile (7500 kt) 58% China (3500 kt) 27% Australia (1006 kt) 8% | |
| Australian production | 11.7 kt (34%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 1006 kt (8%) | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Identification of Li resources associated with known and new pegmatite fields, and discovery of Li-enriched salt lakes. | |
| Recycling | Small amounts of Li were recycled from batteries, recycling is increasing. EU has set a target of 45% of batteries recycled by 2016. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Lithium oxide and hydroxides | Japan | 26 659 300 |
| Belgium | 15 760 658 | |
| India | 11 056 408 | |
| US | 9 092 107 | |
| Republic of Korea | 8 451 205 | |
| Lithium carbonates | Japan | 80 810 031 |
| US | 58 435 216 | |
| Republic of Korea | 52 903 670 | |
| Germany | 41 792 911 | |
| China | 33 569 842 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Battery substitution includes Ca, Mg, Hg, and Zn. Various substitutions available for ceramics and glass. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (14) | |
| Manganese (Mn) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Silvery-grey metal, that is hard, very brittle and paramagnetic. | |
| Usages | Manganese is alloyed in steel and Al, and is used in batteries and fertiliser. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 770 ppm; the main Mn mineral is pyrolusite. | |
| Mineral system group | Basin-hosted and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 14 000 kt Mn metal | |
| Major producing countries |
South Africa (3400 kt) 24% China (2800 kt) 20% Australia (2400 kt) 17% | |
| Global resources | 630 000 kt Mn metal | |
| Major resource holders |
South Africa (150 000 kt) 24% Ukraine (140 000 kt) 22% Brazil (110 000 kt) 17% | |
| Australian production | 6960 kt (manganese ore) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 197 000 kt (manganese ore) | |
| Australian exports | 6876 kt (2011–12) | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Further discoveries possible in shallow environments of marine basins. | |
| Recycling | Minor amounts of Mn are recovered along with Fe from steel slag. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (including waste and scrap) | Germany | 199 380 657 |
| US | 192 053 084 | |
| Canada | 166 801 825 | |
| Japan | 139 696 543 | |
| United Kingdom | 67 874 738 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in major applications. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (12) | |
| Mercury (Hg) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Heavy, silvery-white liquid at room temperature that is a poor conductor of heat but can conduct electricity, and has low melting (–38.8290°C) and boiling (356.73°C) points. | |
| Usages | Mercury is used in fluorescent and neon lamps, Hg-Zn batteries and during the production of Cl and caustic soda. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.03 ppm; major Hg-bearing minerals include realgar and sphalerite (as a trace element). | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, subaqueous volcanic-related, orogenic and basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 1.93 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (1.4 kt) 73% Kyrgyzstan (0.25 kt) 13% Chile (by product) (0.10 kt) 5% | |
| Global resources | 93 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Mexico (27 kt) 29% China (21 kt) 23% Kyrgyzstan (7.5 kt) 8% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Further discoveries of epithermal deposits in the porphyry-epithermal system and recovery from Zn concentrates from subaqueous volcanic-related and basin-hosted systems. | |
| Recycling | Mercury can be recycled from all Hg-containing products. However, the use of non-Hg substitutes has resulted in a reduction in Hg-containing products for recycling. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Metal | Singapore | 28 279 980 |
| India | 12 552 446 | |
| China, Hong Kong SAR | 11 656 390 | |
| Peru | 9 858 781 | |
| Netherlands | 7 867 004 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | An alloy of Ga, In, and Sn now replaces the Hg used in traditional Hg thermometers; LED lighting can substitute fluorescent lamps; Li, Ni-Cd, and Zn-air batteries replace Hg-Zn batteries. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Low (3) | |
| Molybdenum (Mo) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Lustrous silver-white, hard and brittle metal that has high mechanical strength, a low coefficient of thermal expansion and good heat conductivity. | |
| Usages | Molybdenum is used in steel and superalloys and as a lubricant. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.8 ppm; the major Mo-bearing mineral is molybdenite. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related and iron-oxide copper-gold. | |
| Extraction | Main product, co-product, by-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 250 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (94 kt) 38% US (64 kt) 26% Chile (38 kt) 15% | |
| Global resources | 10 100 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China (4300 kt) 43% US (2700 kt) 27% Chile (1200 kt) 12% | |
| Australian production | 0% | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 167 kt (1.6%) | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Further discoveries of Mo-dominated deposits from granite-related and iron-oxide copper-gold systems, and recovery as by-product from porphyry-epithermal systems (porphyry copper deposits). | |
| Recycling | Small amounts of Mo metal and superalloys are recovered. Molybdenum is reutilised through recycling of Mo bearing steel. Up to 30% of the supply of Mo is recycled. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | Japan | 814 862 216 |
| Netherlands | 781 967 149 | |
| Chile | 681 702 979 | |
| Belgium | 675 128 036 | |
| US | 462 792 400 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Few substitutes exist for the major applications of Mo. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (15) | |
| Nickel (Ni) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Hard, ductile and malleable metal. | |
| Usages | Nickel is used in stainless steel and super alloys, and in non-ferrous alloys | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 59 ppm; the major Ni-bearing minerals include pentlandite, millerite and violarite. | |
| Mineral system group | Mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 1810 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
Russia (280 kt) 16% Philippines (230 kt) 13% Indonesia (230 kt) 13% Australia (215 kt) 12% Canada (200 kt) 11% | |
| Global resources | 76 000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Australia (20 400 kt) 27%1 New Caledonia (12 000 kt) 16% Russia (6000 kt) 8% | |
| Australian production | 215 kt (12%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 20 400 kt (27%) | |
| Australian exports | 240 kt (2011–2012) | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Further discoveries in known districts and greenfields areas associated with major large igneous provinces. Production from Ni laterites dependent on advances in extraction technology. | |
| Recycling | Nickel is recycled from scrap Ni bearing steel and alloys. 95 000 tonnes were recycled from scrap in 2012. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | China | 4 905 363 978 |
| Finland | 535 272 036 | |
| Canada | 423 498 212 | |
| Japan | 355 426 043 | |
| Netherlands | 209 679 103 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Nickel-free specialty steels are sometimes used in place of stainless steel, ultra-high-Cr can replace Ni in stainless steels and other alloys can substitute for Ni metal or Ni-based alloys. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (13) | |
1 Includes pre-JORC and JORC-compliant (5500 kt) data.
| Niobium (Nb) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Soft and ductile metal with good resistance to organic and inorganic acids. | |
| Usages | Niobium is used in micro capacitors, steel and ferroalloys. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 8 ppm; Nb occurs as a minor element in minerals such as columbite, pyrochlore and euxinite. | |
| Mineral system group | Granite-related and alkaline intrusion-related. | |
| Extraction | Co-product, by-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 63 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
Brazil (58 kt) 92% Canada (4.4 kt) 7% | |
| Global resources | 3000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Brazil (2900 kt) 97% Canada (200 kt) 3% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 205 kt (7%) | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Production as a by-product of rare-earth element mining operations in alkaline intrusion-related systems, and also from pegmatites from granite-related mineral systems. | |
| Recycling | Recycled from scrap Nb-bearing steel and superalloys, possibly up to 20%. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Total of Ga, Hf, In, Nb and Re metal, including waste and scrap, powder and unwrought) | Japan | 420 186 347 |
| US | 311 426 717 | |
| United Kingdom | 193 412 096 | |
| Republic of Korea | 105 816 585 | |
| Germany | 98 629 086 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Substitution by Mo and V in high-strength, low alloy steel and by Ta and Ti in stainless and high-strength steels is possible but it may involve higher costs and/or a loss in performance. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (20) | |
| Platinum Group Elements (PGE) - Platinum (Pt) and Palladium (Pd) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Metals characterised by catalytic properties, resistance to wear, tarnish, and chemical attack, and by stable electrical properties. | |
| Usages | Platinum and Pd are both used in catalytic converters. Platinum is used in electronic applications and fuel cells, and Pd is used in seawater desalination. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundances of platinum-group elements (PGE) are 0.57 ppb, 0.2 ppb, 1.5 ppb, 0.041 ppb, 0.037 ppb, and 1.5 ppb for Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir and Pt, respectively. Platinum-group elements occur as metallic alloys, sulfide and arsenide minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic, alkaline intrusion-related, and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product, by-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | Platinum: 195 t Palladium: 215 t | |
| Major producing countries |
South Africa 227 t (Pt and Pd) Russia 111 t (Pt and Pd) | |
| Global resources | 6 600 t PGEs | |
| Major resource holders |
South Africa (6 300 t PGE) 95% Russia (1 100 t PGE) 17% US (900 t PGE) 14% | |
| Australian production | 0.441 t | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 4.7 t | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Greatest potential for PGE production is from mafic-ultramafic bodies associated with major large igneous provinces. Platinum group elements can be produced as by-product from existing Ni mines. | |
| Recycling | Recycling from industrial process catalysts and of PGE equipment. 150 000 kg were recovered from scrap in 2012. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Total including Pt, Pd, Rh, Ir and Ru–unwrought, semi-manufactured or powder form) | Japan | 5 960 513 378 |
| US | 5 564 267 162 | |
| China | 5 438 225 080 | |
| Switzerland | 4 084 208 327 | |
| United Kingdom | 3 812 285 084 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Motor vehicles substitute Pd for Pt in catalytic converters. Some PGEs can be substituted for the other PGEs. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (22) | |
| Rare-earth elements (REE), including scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | There are 17 rare-earth elements (REE) each with different properties. | |
| Usages | Rare-earth elements are used in magnets, catalysts, metal alloys, polishing powders, phosphors, energy storage and superconductors. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundances are 20 ppm, 43 ppm, 4.9 ppm, 20 ppm, 3.9 ppm, 1.1 ppm, 3.7 ppm, 0.6 ppm, 3.6 ppm, 0.77 ppm, 2.1 ppm, 0.28 ppm, 1.9 ppm, 0.30 ppm, 21.9 ppm and 19 ppm for La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tr, Yb, Lu, Sc and Y, respectively. Rare-earth elements occur as minor to trace elements in many minerals, but major REE-bearing minerals include carbonates (e.g. bastnasite), phosphates (e.g. monazite, xenotime) and silicates (e.g. allanite). | |
| Mineral system group | Granite-related, iron-oxide copper-gold, alkaline intrusion-related, surficial (lanthanides and Y) and mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic (Sc only). | |
| Extraction | Main product, co-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | REO (rare-earth oxides): 133 kt, Y2O3 8.9 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
REO: China (130 kt) 97.7%, India (3 kt) 2.25%. Y2O3: China (8.8 kt) 98.88% | |
| Global resources |
REO: 114 000 kt Y2O3: 540 kt | |
| Major resource holders | REO: China (55 000 kt) 48% CIS (19 000 kt) 17% US (13 000 kt) 11% Y2O3: China (220 kt): 40.7% US (120 kt): 22.2% Australia (100 kt): 18.5% | |
| Australian production | None as of December 2011 | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | REO and Y2O3: 2070 kt | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Alkaline intrusion-related and iron-oxide copper-gold systems have high potential for rare-earth and associated elements. The Olympic Dam mine one of the two largest REE deposits globally but currently these elements are not recovered. | |
| Recycling | Small amounts mostly magnet scrap. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Rare-earth metals, scandium and yttrium only) | Japan | 714 949 741 |
| US | 70 814 886 | |
| China, Hong Kong SAR | 38 338 569 | |
| Germany | 24 408 750 | |
| Austria | 17 100 656 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Substitutes are available, but less effective. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (29) | |
| Rhenium (Re) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Very dense metal with a very high melting point (3186°C). | |
| Usages | Rhenium is used in superalloys for high-temperature turbine engine components and in catalytic converters. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.188 ppb; the major source of Re is as a minor element in molybdenite. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal and iron-oxide copper-gold. | |
| Extraction | By-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 49 t | |
| Major producing countries |
Chile (26 t) 53% US (6.3 t) 12% Peru (5 t) 10% | |
| Global resources | 2.5 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Chile (1.3) 52% US (0.39) 16% Russia (0.31) 12.4% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Further discovery of Mo-rich deposits in the iron-oxide copper-gold mineral system, and possible recovery as a by-product from existing porphyry Cu mines. | |
| Recycling | Rhenium in spent Pt-Re catalysts are routinely recycled. Some Re is recycled from other alloys. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Total of Ga, Hf, In, Nb and Re metal, including waste and scrap, powder and unwrought) | Japan | 420 186 347 |
| US | 311 426 717 | |
| United Kingdom | 193 412 096 | |
| Republic of Korea | 105 816 585 | |
| Germany | 98 629 086 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Rhodium and Rh-Ir can substitute in high-temperature thermocouples; numerous metals may substitute for Re in catalyst applications. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Low (1) | |
| Selenium (Se) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Non-metal semiconductor. | |
| Usages | An emerging use for Se is thin film photovoltaic copper-indium-gallium-diselenide (CIGS) solar cells. Other uses include alloys for free-machining metals, as an additive, with Ca, in plastics, ceramics and glass to produce a ruby red colour, as an oxidation catalyst, and as a dietary supplement in humans and livestock. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.13 ppm; the major source of Se is as a minor element in chalcopyrite, but there are a large range of selenide, selenate and selenite minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic, iron-oxide copper-gold and subaqueous volcanic-related. | |
| Extraction | Selenium is a by-product of Cu and to a lesser extent Ni. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 2 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
Germany (0.65 kt) 33% Japan (0.63 kt) 32% Belgium (0.20 kt) 10% | |
| Global resources | 93 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Chile (20 kt) 22% Russia (20 kt) 22% Peru (13 kt) 14% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Recovery from Cu concentrates produced from existing Cu mines. | |
| Recycling | Very small amounts of selnium are recovered from obsolete xerographic machines and electronic materials. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| China | 185 867 890 | |
| US | 71 072 261 | |
| China, Hong Kong SAR | 51 737 739 | |
| United Kingdom | 44 938 044 | |
| Germany | 28 570 942 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | High-purity silicon is a major substitute for low- and medium-voltage rectifiers and solar photovoltaic cells. Organic pigments can substitute for cadmium sulfo-selenide pigments. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (11) | |
| Strontium (Sr) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Soft silver-white or yellow metal that is chemically highly reactive and pyrophoric in powdered form. | |
| Usages | Strontium is used in fireworks, ferrite ceramic magnets, glass and ceramics, metal alloys, and pigments | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 320 ppm; the major Sr minerals include strontianite and celestite, although Sr is a trace element in many other minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Basin-hosted. | |
| Extraction | ||
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 380 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (210 kt) 55% Spain (120 kt) 32% Mexico (35 kt) 9% | |
| Global resources | 6 800 kt | |
| Major resource holders | Not available | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Uncertain but most likely in the basin-hosted mineral system. | |
| Recycling | None | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Strontium carbonate | Japan | 23 994 166 |
| US | 15 376 670 | |
| Republic of Korea | 14 249 084 | |
| France | 3 324 116 | |
| India | 2 823 942 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Barium can replace Sr in ferrite ceramic magnets but reduces operating temperatures. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (9) | |
| Tantalum (Ta) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Blue grey, lustrous, hard, tough and dutile metal that is very resistant to corrosion from acids, has high thermal and electrical conductivity, and a high melting point (3107°C). | |
| Usages | Tantalum is used in electronic micro-capacitors and medical technology. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is 0.7 ppm; the major source of Ta is tantalite and columbite, although there are a number of other rare Ta minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Granite-related. | |
| Extraction | Main product, co-product, by-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 0.79 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
Brazil (0.18 kt) 23% Mozambique (0.12 kt) 15% Rwanda (0.11 kt) 14% Australia (0.08 kt) 10% | |
| Global resources | 131 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
Brazil (65 kt) 50% Australia (62 kt) 47% Mozambique (3.2 kt) 2% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 62 kt | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Reopening of historic mines, (e.g. Wodgina) and discovery of Ta-bearing permatites in known and greenfields pegmatite fields. | |
| Recycling | Recycling is limited, mostly from new scrap, Ta bearing steel and superalloys. | |
| DEMAND | Not available | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Tantalum is difficult to substitute, with the possibility of performance loss. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (13) | |
| Tellurium (Te) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Metallic, silvery-white metalloid that is brittle and easily pulverised, is a semiconductor, and resists oxidation by air. | |
| Usages | Uses of Te include high performance photovoltaics and steel alloys. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is approximately 1 ppb; the major source of Te is a trace element in chalcopyrite, but it occurs in a large range of telluride minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Porphyry-epithermal, granite-related, mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic, iron-oxide copper-gold, subaqueous volcanic-related, and orogenic. | |
| Extraction | By-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | Not available | |
| Major producing countries | Not available | |
| Global resources | Quantitative estimates are not available, by-product of Cu mining | |
| Major resource holders | Not available | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Recovery as a by-product from the processing of copper concentrates. | |
| Recycling | Small amounts of Te are recovered from scrapped Se-Te photoreceptors employed in older photocopiers. Recycling amounts to < 10% of supply but is growing. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (Reported in combination with boron) | China, Hong Kong SAR | 108 811 101 |
| Canada | 31 699 268 | |
| Germany | 26 597 710 | |
| Malaysia | 23 754 768 | |
| Belgium | 19 920 944 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Substitutes, including Se, are available, but are less effective. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (13) | |
| Thorium (Th) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Soft, very ductile metal that is dimorphic. | |
| Usages | Thorium's most important emerging technology is in nuclear reactor cores where some properties are seen as being more favourable than U. Thorium is also used in a Mg alloy for application in aircraft engines and rockets, in lamp mantles and in gas tungsten arc welding. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is approximately 5.6 ppm; the major source of Th is monazite and related minerals, although it occurs in a large range of rare oxide and silicate minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Iron-oxide copper-gold, alkaline intrusion-related and surficial (heavy mineral sand deposits). | |
| Extraction | Co-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | Not available | |
| Major producing countries | Not available | |
| Global resources | 1 400 kt (ThO2) | |
| Major resource holders |
US (440 kt ThO2) 31% Australia (410 kt ThO2) 29% India (290 kt ThO2) 21% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | Not available | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Recovery of monazite from heavy mineral sand deposits and certain alkaline intrusion-related deposits. | |
| Recycling | None | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| China | 20 516 699 | |
| Thailand | 3 770 935 | |
| China, Hong Kong SAR | 1 048 114 | |
| France | 79 311 | |
| Spain | 59 865 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Nonradioactive substitutes for Th include Y compounds in incandescent lamp mantles; a Mg alloy containing lanthanides; Y, and Zn can substitute for Mg-Th alloys in aerospace applications. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Low (3) | |
| Tin (Sn) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Silvery, malleable and ductile metal that is not easily oxidised in air and has a low melting point (232°C). | |
| Usages | Tin is used in industrial and electronic solders, flat and touch screen technologies (as indium tin oxide (ITO)), alloys and compounds. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is approximately 1.7 ppm; the major source of Sn is cassiterite, although it occurs in a large range of sulfide and silicate minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Granite-related, subaqueous volcanic-related and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product, co-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 253 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (110 kt) 43% Indonesia (51 kt) 20% Peru (34.6 kt) 14% | |
| Global resources | 4 863 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China (1500 kt) 31% Indonesia (800 kt) 17% Brazil (590 kt) 12% | |
| Australian production | 5 kt (2%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 243 kt (5%) | |
| Australian exports | 4909 t (2011–2012) | |
| Australian potential for new resources | New discoveries and redevelopment of historic mines/districts, particularly in the Tasmanides Belt. | |
| Recycling | Recycled from scrap tin bearing steel and alloys. 13 000 tons recovered from recycling in 2012 in the US. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | Malaysia | 433 854 861 |
| China | 113 037 598 | |
| Thailand | 8 362 160 | |
| Rwanda | 5 741 020 | |
| Russia | 5 300 055 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Metal substitutes include aluminium alloys, Cu-based alloys. Plastics also substitutes for Sn in some applications. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (8) | |
| Titanium (Ti) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Low density metal with high mechanical strength, high melting point, low thermal expansion coefficient and a high resistance to saltwater and acids. | |
| Usages | Titanium is used in TiO2 pigments, carbides, chemicals and as an alloy in steel and superalloys. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is approximately 0.43%; the major source of Ti is ilmenite but other significant Ti-minerals include titanite and rutile (and other TiO2 polymorphs). | |
| Mineral system group | Mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product, co-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production |
Metal sponge: 186 000 kt (Ti) (excludes US production) Ilmenite: 6000 kt (TiO2) Rutile: 700 kt (TiO2) (excludes US production) | |
| Major producing countries |
Metal sponge (Ti): China (60 000 kt) 32%, Japan (56 000 kt) 30% Ilmenite: South Africa (1030 kt (TiO2) 17%, Australia (900 kt TiO2) 15% Rutile: Australia (400 kt TiO2) 57%, South Africa (131 kt TiO2) 19% | |
| Global resources |
Metal sponge: 283 000 kt (Ti) Ilmenite: 650 000 kt (TiO2) Rutile: 42 000 kt (TiO2) | |
| Major resource holders |
Metal sponge (Ti): China (114 000 kt) 40%, Japan (62 200 kt) 22% Ilmenite: China (200 000 kt TiO2) 31%, Australia (100 000 kt TiO2) 15% Rutile: Australia (18 000 kt TiO2) 43%, South Africa (8 300 kt TiO2) 20% | |
| Australian production |
Metal sponge: Not available Ilmenite: 1277 kt concentrate Rutile: 474 kt concentrate | |
| Australian resources (EDR) |
Metal sponge: Not available Ilmenite: 188 900 kt concentrate Rutile: 27 200 kt concentrate | |
| Australian exports |
Ilmenite concentrate: 2045 kt Leucoxene concentrate: 31 kt Rutile concentrate: 334 kt Titanium dioxide pigment: 179 kt | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Discovery of new heavy mineral sand deposits and lesser potential from mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic systems. | |
| Recycling | Titanium is recycled from scrap Ti-bearing steel and alloys (approximatly 35 000 tons in 2012). | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | China | 549 455 455 |
| US | 296 219 208 | |
| Germany | 251 624 351 | |
| Japan | 191 942 639 | |
| Belgium | 145 458 552 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Substitution for high-strength applications includes Al, composites, intermetallics, steel, and superalloys. Corrosion resistance substitutions include Al, Ni, and Zr alloys. Pigment substitutions are CaCO3, talc and kaolin. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (10) | |
| Tungsten (W) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Steel-grey metal that is brittle, has a very high melting point (3422°C), the lowest vapor pressure (at temperatures above 1 650°C) and the highest tensile strength. Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure metal. | |
| Usages | Major uses of W include electronic applications, lighting, construction, steel and alloys, and mining, | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is approximately 1 ppm; the major source of W is wolframite and scheelite. | |
| Mineral system group | Granite-related and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Main product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 72 kt (excludes US production figures) | |
| Major producing countries |
China (60 kt) 83% Russia (3.1 kt) 4% Canada (2 kt) 3% | |
| Global resources | 3300 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China (1900 kt) 58% Australia (376 kt) 11% Russia (250 kt) 8% US (140 kt) 4% Canada (120 kt) 4% | |
| Australian production | 0.015 kt (0.02%) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 376 kt (12%) | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | New discoveries and redevelopment of historic mines/districts, particularly in the Tasmanides Belt. | |
| Recycling | Recycled from scrap W bearing steel and superalloys. 35% to 40% of W is recycled Globally. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| China | 159 073 668 | |
| US | 121 547 126 | |
| Austria | 73 851 567 | |
| Germany | 15 136 212 | |
| Japan | 7 802 238 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Substitutes for tungsten carbide include molybdenum carbide, titanium carbide, ceramics, ceramic-metal composites and tool steel. Molybdenum steel can substitute for tungsten steel, and there are several substitutes for W in lighting. Depleted U can be substituted in armaments, and Pb can be used for radiation shielding. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (23) | |
| Vanadium (V) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Silver-grey ductile and malleable metal that is hard, not brittle, and has good resistance to corrosion and acids. | |
| Usages | Vanadium is used as alloy in Fe and steel, superalloys, chemical catalysts and batteries. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is approximately 138 ppm; the major source of V is from V-bearing magnetite, although it also occurs as vanadinite, carnotite and other uncommon minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic, basin-hosted and surficial. | |
| Extraction | Co-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 60 kt | |
| Major producing countries |
China (23 kt) 38% South Africa (20 kt) 33% Russia (15 kt) 25% | |
| Global resources | 15 000 kt | |
| Major resource holders |
China (5100 kt) 34% Russia (5000 kt) 33% | |
| Australian production | Not available | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 1519 kt (10%) | |
| Australian exports | Not available | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Development of known V-rich magnetite deposits, e.g. Windimurra and Balla Balla, and sediment-hosted deposits, e.g. Julia Creek, and discovery of new deposits associated with large igneous provinces. | |
| Recycling | The majority of recycled V comes from spent chemical process catalysts, a small amount are recycled from V bearing tool scrap metal. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| (2006 data: articles thereof, waste or scrap/powders) | United Kingdom | 16 031 908 |
| Japan | 14 725 206 | |
| Russia | 9 789 370 | |
| China | 7 527 518 | |
| Germany | 7 217 000 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Manganese, Mo, Nb, Ti, and W are interchangeable with V as alloying elements in steel to some degree. Platinum and Ni can replace V compounds as catalysts. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | High (13) | |
| Zirconium (Zr) | ||
|---|---|---|
| CHARACTERISTICS | ||
| Properties | Soft metal that is resistant to corrosion, with a melting point of 1855°C, and a boiling point of 4371°C. | |
| Usages | Zirconium metal is used for cladding nuclear reactor fuels and Zr compounds are used in a variety high temperature applications such as moulds for molten metals. | |
| Geological occurrence | Crustal abundance is approximately 132 ppm; the major source of Zr is zircon (ZrSiO4), although there are a number of other minor to trace Zr-bearing minerals. | |
| Mineral system group | Alkaline intrusion-related and surficial (heavy mineral sand deposits). | |
| Extraction | Main product, co-product. | |
| SUPPLY | ||
| Global production | 975 kt (ZrO2) | |
| Major producing countries |
Australia (512 kt ZrO2) 53% South Africa (255 kt ZrO2) 26% China (67 kt ZrO2) 7% | |
| Global resources | 62 320 kt (ZrO2) | |
| Major resource holders |
Australia (31 320 kt ZrO2) 50% South Africa (14 000 kt ZrO2) 22% Ukraine (4000 kt ZrO2) 6% | |
| Australian production | 512 kt (ZrO2) | |
| Australian resources (EDR) | 31 320 kt (ZrO2) | |
| Australian exports | Zircon (ZrSiO4) concentrate: 846 kt (2011–2012) | |
| Australian potential for new resources | Discovery of new heavy mineral sand deposits; possible by-product of certain REE deposits (e.g. Hastings). | |
| Recycling | Most recycled from new scrap, during metal production and fabrication. Some old scrap is also recycled. | |
| DEMAND | Country | Import value ($US) |
| Ores and concentrates | China | 1 174 489 142 |
| Spain | 252 948 694 | |
| Italy | 144 044 422 | |
| Japan | 131 175 779 | |
| India | 101 572 807 | |
| SUBSTITUTION | Chromite and olivine can be substituted for some foundry applications. Dolomite and spinel can also substitute in high temperature applications. Niobium, stainless steel and Ta provide limited substitution in nuclear applications. | |
| CRITICALITY (SCORE) | Medium (6) | |